Mughal Empire

CONTEXT:

A paragraph describing the Mughal Empire as one of the greatest ever was removed from a government website, KnowIndia.gov.in, after some Twitter users flagged it to the Union Culture Ministry.

The Mughal Dynasty

• From the latter half of the 16th century, they expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi until in the 17th century they controlled nearly all of the subcontinent.
• They imposed structures of administration and ideas of governance that outlasted their rule, leaving a political legacy that succeeding rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore.

Babur – The Founder of Mughal Empire

The first Mughal emperor (1526- 1530)

• Political situation in north-west India was suitable for Babur to enter India .
• Sikandar Lodi died in 1517 and Ibrahim Lodi succeded him. I. Lodhi tried to create a strong centralised empire which alarmed Afghan chiefs as well as Rajputs.
• So in 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi and his Afghan supporters, at (First) Panipat (War) and captured Delhi and Agra.
• The establishment of an empire in the Indo-Gangetic valley by Babur was a threat to Rana Sanga.
• So in 1527 – defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies at Khanwa [a place west of Agra].
• Babur’s advent was significant :

• Kabul and Qandhar became an integral part of an empire comprising North India . Since these areas had always acted as a staging place for an invasion of India and provide security from external invasions
• These two areas mentioned above helped to strengthen India’s foreign trade with China and Mediterranean seaports .
• His war tactics were very expensive since he used heavy artillery which ended the era of small kingdoms because these smaller ones cant afford it .
• He introduced a concept of the state which has to be based on strength and prestige of Crown instead of religious interference. This provided a precedent and direction to his successors .

Humayun [1530-1540, 1555-1556]

• Humayun divided his inheritance according to the will of his father. His brothers were each given a province.
• Sher Khan defeated Humayun which made him forced to flee to Iran.
• In Iran, Humayun received help from the Safavid Shah. He recaptured Delhi in 1555 but died in an accident the following year.
• Humayun built a new city at Delhi which he named “Dinpanah”.
• Mosques: Jamali mosque and mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi.
• His widow Amida Benu Bhegum built Humayun’s tomb (UNESCO site).
• Humayun’s sister, Gul Badan Begum, wrote “Humayun-Nama”.
• The foundation for the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun when he was staying in Persia.
• He brought with him two painters – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India, who became famous during Akbar’s reign.

Akbar [1556-1605] – The Most Popular Ruler among the Mughal Dynasty

His reign can be divided into three periods :

• 1556-1570 : Military campaigns were launched against the Suris and other Afghans, against the neighbouring kingdoms of Malwa and Gondwana, and to suppress the revolt of Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs. In 1568 the Sisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and in 1569 Ranthambor.
• 1570-1585 : military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
• 1585-1605 : expansion of Akbar’s empire. Qandahar was seized from the Safavids, Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul . Campaigns in the Deccan started and Berar, Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were annexed.

Administration under Akbar's rule:

• Empire was divided into subas (provinces), governed by a subadar who carried out both political and military functions. Each subha had officials – diwan, bakshi, sadr, qazi etc.
• There was another division of empire – Jagir (allotted to nobles & members of royal family), Khalisa (tract reserved for royal exchequer), Inam (given to religious leaders, half of it was uncultivated).
• Fauzdar – Charge of law & order & Amalguzar – land assessment and revenue collection were chief officers of Sarkar.

Land Revenue

• With the help of Raja Todar Mal, Akbar experimented on the land revenue administration; it was Zabti or Bandobast system.
• Dahsala System – The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land measured on the basis of previous ten years. It was improved version of Zabti.
• Battai/Gholla-Bakshi system – Produce divided between state & peasants in fixed proportion. Peasants were given choice between Battai & Dahsala.
• Nasaq/kankut – revenue on the basis of what peasant had been paying in the past.
• Categorization of land – Polaj (cultivated every year), Parati (once in two years), Chachar (once in three or four years) and Banjar (once in five or more years).
• Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
• Qanungos were hereditary holders of land and Karoris were officers appointed all over North India. they had responsibility of collecting dam (rupees).

Mansabdari system

• Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration. Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab).
• The word “Mansabdar” used for all but it had 3 scale gradation –

1. Mansabdar – (500 zat / below it)
2. Amir (between – 500-2500 zat)
3. Amir-i-Umda – (above 2500 zat)

• The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
• Zat fixed the personal status & salary of a person.
• Sawar rank indicated the number of sawars had to maintained by person. Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
• The mansab rank was not hereditary & mansabdar were paid by assigning jagir.

Religious policy

• Abolished jizya, pilgrimage and forcible conversion of prisoners of wars.
• He built ibadat khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur sikri for religious discussion.
• Advocated the idea of sulh-i kul or “universal peace’’ idea of tolerance which did not discriminate between the people of different religions.
• Abul Fazl helped Akbar in framing a vision of governance around this idea of sulh-i kul. This principle of governance was followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan as well.
• In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called “Din-e-Ilahi” or Divine Faith. It believes in one God. It contained good points of all religions. It had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith.
• Jharoka Darshan was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority as part of popular faith.

Coinage

• Introduced gold coins called asharafi (mohurs).
• He also began dating his coins as per a new ‘Illahi era’, which replaced the earlier Hijri era.
• Akbar introduced the practice of inscribing Persian poetry praising the ruler on coins.

Art

• Haznama, consisted of 1200 paintings, belonged to his reign.
• European style of painting was introduced by Portuguese priests in his court.
• Jaswant & Daswan were famous painters in his court.
• Persian poets in his court: Abu Fazl and his brother Abul Faizi, Tarikh Alfi, Utbi and Nazir.
• Hindi poets in his court: Tulsidas- wrote “Ramcharitmanas”.
• Akbar commissioned the translation of many Sanskrit works into Persian. A Maktab Khana or translation bureau was also established at Fatehpur Sikri for this purpose.
• The Razmnamah is Persian translation of the Mahabharata.
• Akbar period was popularly known as ‘the renaissance of Persian literature’.

Architecture

• Palace-cum- fort complex at Fatehpur Sikri (City of Victory): Many buildings in Gujarati and Bengali styles are found in this complex. Gujarathi style was probably built for his Rajput wives.
• Akbar built Diwan -i-am (hall of public audience), Diwan-i-Khas (private hall).
• The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it called Buland Darwaza or the Lofty Gate, Shaik Saleem chisti dargah.
• Other important buildings at Fatepur Sikri are Jodha Bai’s palace and Panch Mahal with five storeys.
• During Akbar’s reign, the Humayun’s tomb was built at Delhi and it had a massive dome of marble. It may be considered the precursor of the Taj Mahal.
• Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near Agra was completed by Jahangir.
• He built Agra Fort in red sandstone and also Jahangiri Mahal in it according to Hindu design.

Jahangir [1605-1627]

• Military campaigns started by Akbar continued.
• The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, accepted Mughal service. Less successful campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed.

Shah Jahan [1627-1658]

• Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan under Shah Jahan.
• The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi rebelled and was defeated.
• In the north-west, the campaign to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs was unsuccessful and Qandahar was lost to the Safavids.
• Shah Jahan was imprisoned by his son Aurangazeb for the rest of his life in Agra.

Architecture

• Built Taj Mahal in 1632-33 to perpetuate memories of his wife, Mumtaj Mahal.
• Moti Masjid (entirely of white marble), Sheesh Mahal and Mussaman Burj at Agra.
• Red Fort with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas at Delhi.
• Jama Masjid in Delhi (red stone), Shalimar Bagh in Lahore and city of Shahjahanabad.
• The pietra dura method was used on a large scale in the Taj Mahal by Shah Jahan.

Aurangzeb [1658-1707]

• In the north-east, the Ahoms [a kingdom in Assam near Brahmaputra valley] were defeated in 1663, but they rebelled again in the 1680s. Because Ahoms successfully resisted Mughal expansion for a long time and they don't want to give up their sovereignty which they were enjoying for 600 years .
• Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs were temporarily successful.
• Mughal intervention in the succession and internal politics of the Rathor Rajputs of Marwar led to their rebellion.
• Campaigns against the Maratha chieftain Shivaji were initially successful. However, escaped from Aurangzeb’s prison Shivaji declared himself an independent king and resumed his campaigns against the Mughals.
• Prince Akbar[II] rebelled against Aurangzeb and received support from the Marathas and Deccan Sultanate.
• After Akbar’s rebellion, Aurangzeb sent armies against the Deccan Sultanates. Bijapur[Karnataka] was annexed in 1685 and Golcunda [Telangana] in 1687.
• From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathas who started guerrilla warfare.
• Aurangzeb also had to face the rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis. The Satnamis were a sect of Hinduism and they were resented against Aurangzeb’s strict Islamic policies – which included reviving the hated Islamic Jiziya tax (poll tax on non-Muslim subjects), banning music and art, and destroying Hindu temples.

IMPORTANT BATTLES DURING MUGHAL ERA:

BABUR (1526-1530 AD)

• First Battle of Panipat (1526) – Babur decisively defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. It Replaced the Lodhi and established Mughal era in India.

• Reasons for Babur’s victory: Alternatively resting one wing of Army, Services of two ottoman master gunners – Ustad Ali & Mustafa, Use of Gunpowder, scientific use of cavalry & artillery tactics – tulughma and the araba, effective use of Cannons.

• Battle of Khanwa (1527) – Babur defeated Rana Sangha and assumed title of Ghazi
• Battle of Chanderi (1528) – Medini Rai was defeated and with this resistance across Rajputana was completely shattered.
• Battle of Ghagra (1529) – Babur defeated Mahmud Lodhi who aspired to the throne of Delhi.

HUMAYUN (1530-40 & 1555-56)

• At the battle of Chausa (1539) & battle of Kanauj (1540) Sher Shah, defeated Humayun and forced him to flee India.

AKBAR (1556-1605)

• In 1556, in the second battle of Panipat, he defeated Hemu (Sur’s wazir).
• Battle of Haldighati (1576)- Akbar defeated Rana Pratap following most of the Rajput rulers accepted Akbar’s suzerainty.
• Akbar defeated Gujarat ruler Muzaffar Shah. To commemorate this victory, he built Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri.

OTHER IMPORTANT POINTERS:

• Purana Qila (Old Fort) and its mosque, Mausoleum at Sasaram were constructed during this period.
• Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work “Padmavat” during his reign
• Imp officials –

• Diwan –i- Wizarat / Wazir – Revenue and Finance.
• Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
• Diwan-i-Rasalat- Foreign Minister.
• Diwan-i-Insha- Minister for Communications.
• Barid – Intelligence

• Each sarkar (empire was divided into 'sarkars') was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue), Fotedar (treasurer), Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.

• Mauza (village) was the lowest level of administration.
• There were also many administrative units called iqtas.
• The land revenue was well organized & revenue officers were called Amils and Qanungo were the officials incharge of maintaining revenue records.
• Land survey was carefully done. He introduced a schedule of crop rates (ray).
• Improved land revenue by adopting zabti-i-har-sal (land assessment every year).
• Introduced Patta (amount each peasant had to pay) and Qabuliyat (deed of agreement).
• Introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were in circulation till 1835.
• He built the Shahi (Royal) road from the Indus Valley to the Sonar Valley in Bengal. This road was renamed the Grand Trunk (GT) road during the British period, connecting Calcutta and Peshawar.

• Important terms

• Tainat-i- Rakab -reserved force
• Taccavi – loans provided for agriculture expansion.
• Merwars – Postal runners
• Banik Local Traders
• Bitikchis – Clerks
• Chehra – Descriptive roll of every soldier
• Ahadis – the “gentlemen troopers,” who drew higher pay than ordinary servicemen under mansabdari system.
• Khudkasht – Peasants who owned the land they tilled.
• Khasa Kail – Personal royal force maintained by Sher Shah.
• Qabuliyat system – deed agreement between the peasant and the government.

• REASONS FOR DECLINE OF THE MUGHALS

• Lack of stability after Aurangzeb.
• Most of the emperors became puppets in the hands of powerful Nobles who often ran administration on their behalf.
• Weal military and political administration as exposed by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Abdali’s invasion
• Emergence of autonomous states and hence weakening of central power.
• Orthodox policy of Aurangzeb: His attitude towards Marathas, Rajputs and Jats made them his enemy. His religious policies too alienated the Hindus.

Sources

• The Indian Express
• The Hindu
• Old NCERTs class 7-8